Fr. Jun Abog, CRM
Some Remarks
On June 4, 2005, the feast of St. Francis Caracciolo, the new house of formation of the Order of the Clerics Regular Minor, popularly known as the Adorno Fathers and Brothers, was inaugurated. The house of formation is located in Barangay Sto. Domingo in Vinzons, Camarines Norte, Diocese of Daet. The Most Reverend Benjamin J. Almoneda, D.D., now Bishop Emeritus of the Diocese of Daet, was the main celebrant and preacher of the Mass. In his homily, Bishop Almoneda mentioned his gratitude to God for the presence of the Adorno Fathers in the Diocese. He referred to the new house of the order as a “power house” of prayer and he related that even before the coming of the Adorno Fathers to the Philippines, an allusion to the visit made by American priests of the order, Fathers Hector DiNardo, CRM and Michael Marotta, CRM in 1996, St. Francis Caracciolo, the founder, had already set foot in the country. Bishop Almoneda was actually referring to the Parish of St. Francis Caracciolo in the Diocese of Virac, Catanduanes, which antedated the foundation of the order in Daet. In this article, I have tried to revisit sixteenth century European Church history, the Protestant and Catholic Reformation, the Council of Trent, and especially the renewal of Religious Orders and the foundation new ones – the Clerics Regulars to which the Clerics Regular Minor (Adorno Fathers) belongs. These Clerics Regular Orders are now more than four hundred years old and it is interesting to note that they were all at the forefront of promoting the various Eucharistic devotions after the Council of Trent. In concluding the apostolic exhortation Sacramentum Caritatis, the Holy Father Pope Benedict XVI refers to the Eucharist as being “at the root of every form of holiness, and each of us is called to the fullness of life in the Holy Spirit.” The Pope names a number of holy men and women whose “holiness has always found its center in the sacrament of the Eucharist.”
The Historical Period
Sixteenth century European Church history is the period of reformation and renewal in the Christian world. Martin Luther (1483-1546) is a prominent figure of the period and the image of his nailing the ninety-five theses for public discussion and debate on a church door in Wittenberg reflects the traditional accounts of how the reformation began.[1] This former Augustinian monk and theologian from the University of Wittenberg challenged the abuses concerning the cult of relics and the selling of indulgences and he advocated reforms within the Church of the late medieval period. Eventually, the issue of reform resulted in the rejection of the so-called pillars of the medieval Church that included the office of the papacy, the efficacy and extent of the sacraments and “the superiority of monasticism as a higher form of the Christian way of life.”[2] Luther’s call for reform within the Church reached out to the Holy Roman Empire and the locus of this evangelical movement was really his idea for spiritual reform and renewal.[3]
Sixteenth century European Church history is also a period of renewal within the Catholic Church, thus the name Catholic Reformation. The developments in Roman Catholic education were basically a response to the challenges brought about by the Protestant Reformation. The educational reforms of the Roman Catholic Church can be found in the decrees and canons of the Council of Trent, which “reaffirmed the rights of the Church in the area of theology and education.”[4]
The Council of Trent was a major event in the history of the Roman Catholic Church. It was convened in 1545 and its sessions lasted for eighteen years until December of 1563. In theory, the Council had three main objectives that included effecting much needed reform in the Church; clarifying and defining disputed doctrine and condemning errors while at the same time restoring the peace and unity of the Church.[5]
The Tridentine Council’s agenda could be described as very broad vis-à-vis the challenge of the Protestant Reformation. Disciplinary decrees meant to regulate day to day living of faith were enacted together with the dogmatic decrees that stipulated the official teaching of the Church on a particular doctrine.[6] The canons and decrees of the Council dealt with doctrinal issues such as justification, the validity of the Sacred Scriptures and Tradition as sources of religious truth, the seven sacraments, the Mass, purgatory and the invocation of the saints. The canons and decrees of the Council reflected the Church’s response to the challenges from Luther, Calvin, the Anabaptists and the Zwinglians who had advanced the understanding that the priestly ministry was a mere human and legal invention of the Church.[7] The Tridentine Council affirmed the ministry of the priesthood and its sacramentality and permanent character, as well as its being a divine institution that included the hierarchy of orders i.e. bishops, presbyters and ministers.[8] Thus the Council emphasized the cultic character of the ordained priesthood; that it is by divine ordinance and this is indicated in the opening clause of the Council’s Decree on the Sacrament of Orders, “Sacrifice and priesthood are thus conjoined by divine ordinance.”[9] Thus the ordained ministry as decreed by the Council is a divine ordinance that “involves the power of consecrating, offering and administering the Eucharist, and linked to this is the power of absolution.”[10] The Council of Trent did not only deal with the challenges to the doctrine of the ministerial priesthood but more importantly it decreed the establishment of a formal institution for the formation and training of candidates to the priesthood, the seminarium.
The establishment of seminaries for the education and formation of the clergy was mandated by the Council of Trent. Before the introduction and implementation of the decrees of the Council, an aspirant to the priesthood took religious and theological apprenticeship at a bishop’s residence, a cathedral school, or monastery. This kind of formation to the priesthood became riddled with abuses of power and privilege; for example, some bishops and abbots had many dioceses and abbeys under their jurisdiction.[11]
The lack of an effective system for the training and formation of priests resulted in a miserable state of affairs: the collapse of morals among the clergy. The Council of Trent promoted the renewal of the clergy through the establishment of seminaries that ensured a sound and systematic formation of aspirants to the priesthood and, as a result of this, the clergy’s ability to preach the Word of God was improved. It has been noted that one of the principal reasons why many people left the Catholic Church for the preachers of the Protestant Reformation was the poor quality of the preaching of the clergy.[12] The first few decades of the sixteenth century saw the proliferation of treatises on how to preach, which is actually a continuation of the scholastic tradition artes praedicandi.[13]
The twenty-third session of the Council was held on July 15, 1563. During this particular session, the doctrinal decree relating to the Sacrament of Holy Orders was approved together with the so-called reformatory decrees on the abuses in matters pertaining to the administration of this sacrament. The eighteenth canon dealt with the decree on the establishment of seminaries. Thus on July 15, 1563, the seminary as a formal institution for training future priests came into existence.[14] The eighteenth canon literally imposed upon every cathedral and metropolitan church the obligation to build a seminary. The idea of building a seminary within the vicinity of the cathedral or metropolitan church was to enable the seminarians to assist at the liturgies there on feast days.[15]
The Tridentine Council also provided for the content of seminary curriculum in order to insure the proper intellectual formation of candidates to the priesthood. Thus the canons of the Council mandated what should be studied:
…grammar, singing, ecclesiastical computation and other useful arts; shall be instructed in Sacred Scripture, ecclesiastical books, the homilies of the saints, the manner of administering the sacraments, especially those things that seem adapted to the hearing of confessions, and the rites and ceremonies.[16]
The Tridentine Council was also concerned with the moral formation of the candidates to the priesthood. It required the seminarians to wear the clerical garb and to be tonsured upon their entrance into the seminary. They were also expected to attend Mass everyday, to confess their sins once a month and to receive the Eucharist in accordance with the counsels of their spiritual directors. On feast days, they were required to assist at the celebrations at the cathedral and other churches within the diocese. Seminarians found to be disorderly, incorrigible and “disseminators of evil morals were to be punished severely and, if necessary, expelled.”[17]
The Council of Trent also stipulated that the professorships of theology at the seminary should not be conferred on anybody except those with doctorate, masters or licentiate degrees in theology or canon law. The bishop was entrusted with the administration of the seminary and he was to visit the institution often in order to see things whether things were being conducted according to the decrees of the Council.[18]
The seminary legislation of the Council of Trent was no doubt a step toward providing a solution to the problem of ill trained priests. The renewal of the Church brought about by the Council of Trent was certainly realized by passing laws and reaffirming some old canons i.e. making bishops assume their residences in their respective dioceses, and drawing up new ones.[19] With regard to the renewal of religious orders, the Council of Trent promulgated the Decretum de regularibus et monialibus during its twenty-fifth sessions on December 4, 1563.[20] The decree dealt among other things with the year of probation or novitiate and the valid age of profession of vows in religious orders. The novitiate year was decreed to last for a full year before the profession of vows and sixteen was the valid age at the time of the profession.[21]
Renewal in the Religious Orders
The sixteenth century also saw the establishment of the Congregation for Religious in Rome and the reform and reorganization of religious orders. Some orders were suppressed, particularly those deemed useless or incapable of reform. This happened during the pontificate of Pius V.[22] Practically all main forms of monasticism, Benedictine, Augustinian and others brought about their indigenous version or reformed branch, which longed to restate “the monastic ideal in the fifteenth century.”[23] The reforming and missionary zeal was likewise at work among the Dominicans, Franciscans and the Carmelites.[24] For instance, in the reform of the Dominicans in the Iberian peninsula, Francisco de Vitoria and his followers revived the teaching of Saint Thomas Aquinas and applied it to the juridical and economic problems of the period, particularly with regard to the conquista of the New World.[25]
During the period of reform among the Franciscans, the Capuchin branch emerged. Matthew di Bassi and his disciples, although remaining faithful to the ideal of charity and proverty, abandoned the eremitical idea in favor of the apostolate among the people.[26] The Capuchins were able to expand and establish themselves not only in France and throughout Europe but also in the Moslem Near East and in South America.[27]
The Discalced branch of the Carmelites also emerged during the sixteenth century. The major figures of the Carmelite reform include Teresa de Ahumada (St. Teresa of Avila) and John de Yepes (St. John of the Cross). Teresa’s goals in establishing the reformed Carmelite convent included the community members’ serious dedication to the contemplative life following the Carmelite rule, “observing in particular its spirit of unceasing prayer.”[28] The symbol of their poverty and eremitical way of life was the wearing of plain sandals instead of ordinary shoes, from which the name Discalced Carmelites has been derived.[29] The reformed branch of the Carmelites sought to combine the eremitical way of life of the founding fathers and mothers with the apostolic zeal, “(they) found it possible to lead a contemplative life of prayer by day and night in their cells, in silence and fasting, while at the same time seeking to make that life known and loved beyond the walls of their convents, as is shown in the authentic mystical writings of St. Teresa and St. John of the Cross, among others.”[30] These two saints are also major figures in the history of Spanish literature. They are also among the thirty-three officially declared doctores ecclesiae, the title bestowed by the Catholic Church on those who have made significant contributions in terms of the understanding, explanation and shaping of the doctrina.[31]
New Religious Orders
In the light of the Protestant challenge and the need for renewal in the Church, there came about a new type of religious life that started in the 1500s. This relates to the emergence of the Clerics Regulars: the Theatines, Barnabites, the Orders of the Mother of God, the Ministers of the Sick, the Pious Schools and the Society of Jesus.[32] From the very beginning of their establishment, Clerics Regulars were not congregations or orders of lay people as most earlier orders had been at their establishment, but rather were orders of priests who were directly dedicated to apostolic work as their very reason for existence.[33] The Church was able to pull herself out of the problems and challenges of the sixteenth century through the following factors that historians regularly note: “the Council of Trent, reform-minded popes and bishops and the new and reformed religious orders.”[34] (underscoring supplied)
Peter Day in A Dictionary of Religious Orders, enumerates the distinguishing characteristics of the orders that belong to the Clerics Regular family: first, they are devoted to the sacred ministry; second, they are obliged to cultivate the sacred sciences; third, their religious habit is not a monastic habit; and fourth, the life of the members is less austere.[35]
The Clerics Regulars include the following: the Theatines (Clerics Regular) founded in 1524; the Barnabites (Clerics Regular of Saint Paul) established in 1530; the Somascans (Clerics Regular of Somasca) founded in 1534; the Jesuits (Society of Jesus) founded in 1534 and received the Bull of approval from Pope Paul III in 1540;[36] the Camillans (Clerics Regular Ministers of the Infirm or the Order of the Servants of the Sick/Order of Saint Camillus) founded in 1582; the Adorno Fathers/Caracciolini Fathers (Clerics Regular Minor) established in 1588; and the Piarists (Poor Clerics Regular of the Mother of God of the Pious Schools) established in 1617.
The foundation of new religious orders of the sixteenth century was one of the main contributions of Italian spirituality to Catholic reformation. Pierre Pourrat in his work titled Christian Spirituality refers to the general character of the spirituality of the period as practical and less speculative, in his own words, “(a) spirituality in action, in the religious communities and in the lives of the saints, rather than spirituality in theory or in books.”[37] Pourrat classified the religious institutes of the sixteenth century into two groups. The first category consists of orders that were concerned with the renewal of the clergy and the people by means of missionary work. The Theatines, Barnabites, Oratorians of St. Philip Neri, the Oblates of St. Charles Borromeo and the Clerics Regular Minor belong to the first group. The education of young people as well as the care of the sick in the hospitals were the main apostolate of the Somascans of St. Jerome Emiliani, the Fathers of Christian Doctrine of Blessed Cesar de Bus, the Fathers of Pious Schools of St. Joseph Calasanz also known as Piarists, the Ursulines of St. Angela Merici of Brescia, the Servants of the Sick of St. Camillus de Lellis, the Clerics Regular of the Mother of God of St. John Leonardi are the orders that belong to the second group.[38]
The Orders of the Clerics Regulars were at the forefront of initiating various forms of Eucharistic devotions such as visits to the Blessed Sacrament, Eucharistic processions, Forty Hours devotion, different kinds of around the clock prayer before the Blessed Sacrament and the establishment of a number of Eucharistic confraternities.
Eucharistic Devotions After the Council of Trent
It is important to note that one of the issues that continued to be challenged by the Protestant Reformers before and after the Council of Trent was the Eucharist, the real presence of Jesus Christ in the species as well as the sacrificial value of the Mass. The decrees and canons of the Council reflect a renewed understanding of the Eucharistic mystery. The Council was emphatic in reminding the clergy to believe, teach and preach about the Eucharist as explained and defined by its decrees which affirmed that Jesus Christ is substantially present in the bread and wine consecrated at Mass. In addition to the decrees pointing to Christ’s institution of the sacrament of the Eucharist, the Council also taught about the pre-eminence of the sacrament over all the other sacraments because of the real presence of the Lord in the Eucharistic species. In addition, the Council affirmed and legitimized the worship and veneration of the Eucharist, citing the perpetual custom of the Church in rendering worship or latria that is due to the true God. Likewise the Council approved the traditional practice of carrying the Blessed Sacrament in procession.
The appearance of the Eucharistic vessel known as monstrance can be traced to the second half of the thirteenth century. The monstrance became the defining feature of the Corpus Christi processions for centuries to come that allowed the faithful to gaze upon the Blessed Sacrament outside the Mass.[39] The Council of Trent best highlighted the significant character of the Feast of Corpus Christi as an act of thanksgiving and it saw in the procession a manifestation of victory over the errors of the period.[40]
The period right after the Council of Trent witnessed the reaffirmation of the real presence of Jesus Christ in the Eucharistic species. There was a continued flourishing of Eucharistic devotions, particularly the reverence and adoration of the Blessed Sacrament. The new form of monstrance for the adoration of the Blessed Sacrament known as the “sunburst” began to be used during the sixteenth century:
…with the Host appearing in a sunlike setting of dazzling, outwardly radiating molded rays. Its introduction seemed to foreshadow the beginning of another great age of the Eucharist – and indeed it did, although just how this new Eucharistic Renaissance was to unfold could scarcely have been imagined by those living at its outset.[41]
The Eucharistic renaissance of the sixteenth century had its roots in the Eucharistic devotions before the Council of Trent. The Feast of Corpus Christi dates back to 1264 when Pope Urban IV made this feast a holy day of obligation for the Universal Church. Since that time, the procession through the streets with the Blessed Sacrament placed in a monstrance and the benediction of the Blessed Sacrament became popular.[42]
In addition to the Feast of Corpus Christi that popularized the devotion to the Blessed Sacrament outside the Mass, a form of prayer called the Forty Hours Prayer became popular in the sixteenth century. It began in Milan at the Holy Sepulcher Church. This devotion was held four times annually in the oratory where the Blessed Sacrament was reserved. At this time, there was no continuous exposition of the Eucharist that would later on characterize this popular devotion.[43] A priest from Ravenna, Antonio Bellotto is given credit for introducing and expanding the devotion beyond the confines of the Easter Triduum.[44]
The Capuchin friar and preacher Joseph Plantida Fermo introduced the practice of the devotion on a continuous yearlong basis in Milan and the Blessed Sacrament was carried in procession from parish to parish.[45] Along with Fermo, St. Anthony Mary Zaccaria and the hermit Bonus of Cremona contributed to the development of the Forty Hours Prayer.[46] From Milan, this devotion spread to other cities of Italy and Europe. St. Philip Neri began the devotion in Rome in 1550. The Jesuits likewise promoted the devotion. It was introduced in France for the first time in 1574 and around the year 1577, it was brought to Spain by Joseph de Rocaberti, a Capuchin.[47]
Conclusion
This article has revisited sixteenth century European Church history. It has highlighted some significant events during the period, the challenge of the Protestant Reformation, the renewal of the Church through the establishment of seminaries and the foundation of the new religious orders – the Clerics Regulars. The Council of Trent provided a strong impetus not only for the renewal of religious orders and the foundation of new ones that include the Clerics Regular Orders but also the spread of Eucharistic devotions and piety.
The sixteenth century period is a pivotal age for the Church in terms not only of the various challenges to Catholic doctrine but more significantly, in the way ministry was being carried out by the new religious orders belonging to the Clerics Regulars. The common denominator among these Clerics Regulars aside from the fact that their founders have all been officially canonized by the Church – St. Cajetan of Thiene, founder of the Clerics Regulars/Theatines; St. Anthony Mary Zaccaria of the Barnabites or the Clerics Regular of St. Paul; St. Jerome Emiliani of the Clerics Regular of Somasca; St. Camillus de Lellis, founder of the Clerics Regular Ministers of the Infirm or Order of the Servants of the Sick now known as the Order of St. Camillus; St. John Calasanz, founder of the Piarists or the Poor Clerics Regular of the Mother of God of the Pious Schools; St. Ignatius of Loyola, founder of the Society of Jesuits; St. Francis Caracciolo of the Clerics Regular Minor/Adorno Fathers – is that theirs is a lived spirituality or a spirituality based on action or the apostolate. To reiterate, these orders have all contributed to the promotion of Eucharistic devotions.
The Holy Father Pope Benedict XVI in Sacramentum Caritatis writes that “the Eucharist, since it embraces concrete, everyday existence of the believer, makes possible, day by day, the progressive transfiguration of all those called by grace to reflect the image of the Son of God.” Hence we can draw inspiration from the dedication and love of the founders of the Clerics Regular Orders to the Eucharistic Lord. We are all called to live out our Christian values in the open, to love and serve God and the people; to strive to be holy ourselves by way of uniting our worship of God and our way of life that is consistent with the Gospel values.
I would like to conclude this article with some thoughts regarding the life of my Founder, St. Francis Caracciolo. Throughout his life, he was noted for his great love for Jesus in the Blessed Sacrament. In fact, he has often been portrayed in adoration before the Blessed Sacrament so as to allow the Eucharistic Christ to be the nourishment and foundation of his active life. Pope Pius VII in 1807 captured the love that St. Francis Caracciolo had for the Blessed Sacrament in his Bull of canonization. He wrote:
He (St. Francis Caracciolo) continued the adoration before the Blessed Sacrament for entire nights, during which his heart would melt like wax, and his eyes would become damp with tears. To promote the worship of that heavenly Eucharistic bread, he established that the members of his Order, alternatingly, would spend time, everyday, before the Most Blessed Sacrament, and that his pious exercise would have to be considered as the principal distinction of his Order.
St. Francis Caracciolo died on June 4, 1608 in Agnone, Italy on the Vigil of the Feast of Corpus Christi. Towards his last hours, when he received Holy Communion in the form of Viaticum, he was heard to say, “My most beloved Lord, how good your are! Blood of Christ shed for me! It is mine, do not deny it to me, because it is mine! O priests, strive to offer Mass every day, inebriate yourselves with this blood. O Paradise, O Paradise, Blessed are those who live in your house, O Lord.” May his example, and the example of all those members of the Clerics Regular, inflame us with the love and zeal for God and our neighbor.
[1] Peter G. Wallace, The Long European Reformation (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 75.
[2] Patrick V. Reid, Readings in Western Religious Thought (Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1995), 298.
[3] Wallace, The Long European Reformation, 220.
[4] John L. Elias, A History of Christian Education: Protestant, Catholic and Orthodox Perspectives (Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing Company, 2002), 97.
[5] John C. Olin, Reform from Cardinal Ximenes to the Council of Trent (New York: Fordham University Press, 1990), 28.
[6] Thomas D. McGonigle, O.P. and James F. Quigley, O.P. A History of Christian Tradition from the Reformation to the Present (Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1996), 25.
[7] Thomas F. O’Meara, O.P. Theology of Ministry (Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1999), 169.
[8] O’Meara, Theology of Ministry, 170.
[9] Patrick J. Dunn, Priesthood: A Re-examination of the Roman Catholic Theology of the Presbyterate (New York: Alba House, 1990), 94.
[10] Dunn, Priesthood, 94.
[11] Christopher J. Kauffman, Tradition and Transformation in Catholic Culture: The Priests of Saint Sulpice in the United States from 1791 to the Present (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1988), 13.
[12] Catherine A. Cory and David T. Landry, The Christian Theological Tradition (USA: University of St. Thomas Theology Department, 1996),.319.
[13] John O’Malley, Religious Culture in the Sixteenth Century: Preaching, Rhetoric, Spirituality and Reform (Aldershot, Hampshire: Ashgate Publishing Ltd., 1993), 51.
[14] James A. O’Donohoe, Tridentine Seminary Legislation (Louvain: Publications Universitaires, 1957), 162.
[15] O’Donohoe, Tridentine Seminary Legislation, 163.
[16] Dennis R. Janz, ed., A Reformation Reader: Primary Texts with Introductions (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 1999), 363.
[17] O’Donohoe, Tridentine Seminary Legislation, 165.
[18] O’Donohoe, Tridentine Seminary Legislation, 166.
[19] John W. O’Malley, S.J., “One Priesthood: Two Traditions” in A Concert of Charisms: Ordained Ministry in Religious Life, ed. Paul K. Hennessy, C.F.C. (Mahwah: NJ: Paulist Press, 1997), 17.
[20] Joseph L.Waters, The Probation in Societies of Quasi-Religious (Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America, 1951), 22.
[21] Waters, Probation in Societies of Quasi-Religious, 22.
[22] Jean Canu, Religious Orders of Men (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1960), 90.
[23] Euan Cameron, “Italy” in The Early Reformation in Europe, ed. Andrew Pettegree (Great Britain: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 192.
[24] Canu, Religious Orders of Men, 91.
[25] Canu, Religious Orders of Men, 91.
[26] Canu, Religious Orders of Men, 92.
[27] Canu, Religious Orders of Men, 92.
[28] Kieran Kavanaugh, O.C.D., “Introduction” in Teresa of Avila: The Interior Castle, ed. Richard Payne. The Classics of Western Spirituality (Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1979), 4.
[29] Canu, Religious Orders of Men, 93.
[30] Canu, Religious Orders of Men, 93.
[31] See Bernard McGinn, The Doctors of the Church: Thirty-three Men and Women who Shaped Christianity (New York: The Crossroad Publishing Company, 1999).
[32] John W. Padberg, S.J., “Memory, Vision and Structure: Historical Perspectives on the Experience of Religious Life in the Church,” in Religious Life in the U.S. Church: The New Dialogue, ed. Robert J. Daly, S.J. et al (Ramsey, NJ: Paulist Press, 1984), 71.
[33] Padberg, “Memory, Vision and Structure,” 71.
[34] Padberg, “Memory, Vision and Structure,” 72.
[35] Peter Day, A Dictionary of Religious Orders (London: Burns & Oates, 2001), 101.
[36] John O’Malley, S.J. “The Society of Jesus,” in Religious Orders of the Catholic Reformation, ed. Richard L. DeMolen (New York: Fordham University Press, 1994), 139.
[37] Pierre Pourrat, Christian Spirituality (Westminster, MD: The Newman Press, 1953), 230.
[38] Pourrat, Christian Spirituality, 231.
[39] Benedict J. Groeschel, C.F.R. and James Monti, In the Presence of Our Lord: The History, Theology, and Psychology of Eucharistic Devotion (Huntington, IN: Our Sunday Visitor Publishing Division, 1997), 234.
[40] A. G. Martimort, ed. The Church at Prayer: The Eucharist (New York: Herder and Herder, 1973), 227.
[41] Martimort, The Church at Prayer, 242.
[42] William R. Crockett, Eucharist Symbol of Transformation (New York: Pueblo Publishing Company, Inc., 1989), 1.
[43] Groeschel and Monti, In the Presence of Our Lord, 244.
[44] Groeschel and Monti, In the Presence of Our Lord, 244.
[45] Groeschel and Monti, In the Presence of Our Lord, 244.
[46] Groeschel and Monti, In the Presence of Our Lord, 244.
[47] Groeschel and Monti, In the Presence of Our Lord, 244.